Human Inequality And Environmental Pollution - 1928 Words

The economy of China currently stand as the second-largest economy in the world only beaten by that of the United States of America. However, the Chinese GDP stands also to be rising fast — up 12.4% in dollar terms was recorded in 2013. For various other nations, such a figure would be much of a stellar year. Example is the United States of America managed merely 3.2% in the fourth quarter of last year — compared to China which had registered 18% or more each year from 2006 to 2011 (Gough, January 19, 2016). Nonetheless, such massive growth of the nation stand widely clouded by a dark sky of biting inequality and massive concerns of environmental dilapidation. Biting human inequality and Environmental pollution has been for long time and continues to be a serious problem in China. These two closely tied problems are evident mostly in education, health, economic situations, politics and the Chinese labor which is more of Modern Slavery (Chen, 2005). Putting these to cont ext, the themes most relating to these Chinese contemporary issues are those of human and environment and inequality. Consequently, this paper seeks to look at the historical roots of environmental dilapidation and human inequality as a contemporary issue through time and across space paying attention to China and other world destinations. Contemporary Issues Through the progression of world history, society progressively grow to become more and more sensitive to concerns of equality and human right focus owedShow MoreRelatedThe Population Of The Planet Is Reaching Unsustainable1377 Words   |  6 Pageswarming, environmental pollution, habitat loss, intensive farming practices, and the consumption of finite natural resources, such as fresh water, arable land and fossil fuels, at speeds faster than their rate of regeneration. 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He believes in the minimum state of government control because humans are rational, autonomousRead MoreEnvironmental Inequalities Of The Urban Environment William F Aburel Summary1640 Words   |  7 Pages Page 1 2/2010 1 Debates on environmental inequalities Another approach to the urban environment William F Aburel Summary: Unlike other countries, the issue of environmental inequalities, although present in the official speeches, France suffers from a lack of political ambition. The idea defended here is that the design Historical (technical-normative) institutional environment, so the observation mechanisms and action historically constituted by administrations, hinders the emergence of this issueRead MoreThe Transformation Of Societies Into Industrialized Nations872 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction The transformation of societies into industrialized nations impairs not only human health but also the environment. Industries generated toxic waste, as a by-product of the manufacturing process, and their solution was to expel these pollutants, contaminating the surrounding environment. The build up of pollution has lead to undesirable climate changes; acid rain, altered atmospheric composition, land degradation and dangerously increasing water levels on a global scale. Greed hasRead MoreSimilarities And Differences Between China And Australia1236 Words   |  5 PagesSimilarities and Differences between China and Australia’s Economies Introduction The Chinese and Australia economies have many similarities and differences, including the size of the economies, growth rates, unemployment, inequality, standard of living, environmental issues and the roles the different governments have in influencing and modifying these factors of the economy. Size of Economy The GDP is the total market value of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. 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The Last of the Mohicans Free Essays

Is racism a choice or not?   The novel `The Last of the Mohicans,` by James Fenimore Cooper, did provide evidences of racism as practice not only by Americans but also by other cultures which suggests a strong indication on the possible roots of racism. This paper therefore attempts to dramatize this new found reality that may not be known or accepted by many.   The three part thesis of the paper is stated in the following propositions: (1) the racism has its roots in nature and it must be having been part of human nature. We will write a custom essay sample on The Last of the Mohicans or any similar topic only for you Order Now (2) That racism has been practiced due to natives wanting to preserve their cultures, and (3) that racism is strongly felt in gender mix. Since the Native Americans are forced to live with their colonizers, refusal to intermarry with the European colonizers must have been a natural thing to do. Hence what is ever is happening as racism in the United States must be traced back to this great of American history. To dwell therefore on the belief that discrimination is a well-planned reaction to other cultures may seem to find litter support as it not natural to hate or discriminate other people. There must be a prior experience in the past that has entered the subconscious level.   Not surprisingly therefore one could read in the American literature stories and novels that my have the colors or some racial problem. But the racial reactions was not chosen voluntarily as intended reaction but a subconscious reaction become something hurtful that has happened in the past. The issue of apparently prohibited a sexual racial mixture between cultures is depicted in the novel The Last of the Mohicans by Fenimore Cooper’s. The word ‘miscegenation’, which the shortened word for the sexual racial mixture has taken its meaning from two parts ‘miscere’ and ‘genus’   is apparently used in the at the end of the nineteenth century, and the word was actually   found mainly in the analysis of previous literary works. In appreciating therefore the reality to a profound and realistic portrayal of gender and racial relations between Native Americans and white people in the period of Indian and French Wars in his novel, author Cooper made an introduction of his own vision of early native Americans taking the position that miscegenation should be prohibited. It may be argued that the existing political and social issues are indeed influenced by the attitude of white people towards Native Americans in the past.  Ã‚   To be specific about it one may check that the at the end of the seventeenth century there were indeed some American states to have passed specific laws that were aimed at prohibiting sexual racial mixture and this may inferred to have deprived people of different races, with the exception of the white population but not without the undeniable repercussion as far as the American political rights particularly violation to the principles of equality. On taking the contrary view miscegenation may lessen the differences between two races but people then or may even this could aggravate these distinctions because people would be detached and removed from their customary background and by forbidding them from integration into the new environment. This could observed by the fact America’s vision as seen by some is large measure of what the country’s have projected as a model   about a future-realizable condition, instead of using the past to look the situation using reason.   With this seeming mismatch, America may have been involved in complex racial tensions and conflicts which appeared to be directed Native Americans. This same reason was also evident in Cooper’s rejection of sexual mixture in the book. In his portrayal of gender relations and miscegenation in the novels, Cooper may be opening the minds of those who know the real background or origin of racism as a social phenomenon.  Ã‚   Not many people will disagree that the US the country that brought a into living together as community of people   from different races   if one will observe that such may have even started from the   period of colonization. Since colonization may only be a desire to influence other cultures. But as soon as the process of interaction was started it, history has recorded about colonizers making constant attempts to destroy beliefs of Native Americans both from the cultural and religious aspects. The most immediate reaction however was for the indigenous population with America to want preservation of their cultural identity which normally is conflicting to the principles of white people. It is proper at this point to produce evidence from the text why Cooper has shown rejection of sexual mixture between races.   In his narration, Fenimore Cooper has described the people or character in the novel with mixed and unmixed blood. One of the characters in the novel is Hawkeye, who despite the fact of being culturally connected with both white people and Indians, he is portrayed by author as a person â€Å"without a cross†[1] The author may have the same treatment of Alice Munro who is described as â€Å"surprisingly fair†[2]. For another character by the name of Chingachgook, the author has presented as an unmixed Mohican. Cooper has created characters belonging to the other race like Cora, the elder sister of Alice, who may be described to of mixed race, who played the role of protecting even at the cost of her own life.   Cora was indeed presented as coming from â€Å"that unfortunate class who are so basely enslaved to administer to the wants of a luxurious people†[3] from the race of West Indians, who cannot marry a person from the South. It may be concluded then that Cooper did portrayed a story of racism in the US dating back to period of colonization as the book revealed women characters being prohibited to many from other race and therefore an indication of lack of freedom and equality when it comes to issues of choosing their marital partners. Cooper portrayed a judgment for women who ignored racial prejudices and assigned their societal-dictated roles, by either being rejected by society or having to die as they are opposing to sexual mixture. In the novel, one could conclude in their minds how the author Cooper has chosen to exterminate ignorer of racial prejudices such Cora and Magua if only to prevent an incompatible marriage. Work Cited: Cooper, J `The Last of the Mohicans, ` St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1984 [1] Cooper, 1984 p.4. [2] Cooper, 1984 p.378 [3] Cooper, 1984 p.310 How to cite The Last of the Mohicans, Essay examples

Incorporating Motivation Multimedia Learn -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Incorporating Motivation Multimedia Learn? Answer: Introduction The report helps in analysis of the different factors of motivation that is required to be adopted in different organizations. The motivation is an essential factor in the organization as this helps in meeting the different goals of the company and this leads to the increased productivity. There are different kinds of incentive programs that have to be adopted by the companies that will help in enhancing the morale of the employees as well. The main aim and purpose of the report helps in describing the difference between the process and content theory of motivation. The different theories have to be analyzed in context of a respective organization named Woolworths that is based on Australia. The Maslows theory along with Herzbergs along with McGregors theory has to be identified in such a manner that this will help in analyzing the criticisms of theory in the respective organization. The structure of the report includes the explanation of the different theories of motivation and their implications in the organization named Woolworths, Australia. The different kind of theories of motivation has to be analyzed along with the criticisms that have been labeled against it. Overview of Woolworths Woolworths Limited is one of the major Australian Company that is based in Australia along with in New Zealand (Woolworthsgroup.com.au, 2018). Woolworths is the second largest company in both Australia and New Zealand and it is one of the largest takeaway liquor retailers in Australia as well. The revenue that has been earned and generated by them is around A$59 billion and the profit is around A$1.2 billion. The number of employees who are working in Woolworths Company is 202,000 and the key people in the respective company are Gordon Cairns, Chairman and Brad Banducci, CEO of the company. The main operations of Woolworths Company include their supermarket business along with retailing of liquor as well. Difference between process theory and content theory Process theories help in focusing on the different factors within a particular individual that helps in directing, energizing and sustaining behavior (Gerhart and Fang 2015). These different factors can be inferred in an effective manner and the implications of the theory include that the individuals are unique in nature and the managers of the respective organization require understanding the desires and goals of the employees (Alshmemri, Shahwan-Akl and Maude 2017). On the other hand, the content theory includes description and analyzing the behavior that is energized and sustained in nature. The implications of the theory are that the different individuals make their own choices that are based on different preferences along with rewards. The managers of the respective organization need to understand the motivational theories in an effective manner (Lazaroiu 2015). Woolworths follow the content theory approach wherein the managers are aware of the different needs and requirements of the employees. The different proponents of the content theory include Maslows Hierarchy Theory along with Herzbergs theory. There are different content theories that have been reduced to the content theories as the focus of the content theories is based on the requirements of the employees in the respective company. The needs and preferences of the employees have to be analyzed in such a manner that this will help the employees in the organization to perform better in the future (Zameer et al. 2014). The meaningful rewards and recognition will help the employees in achieving the safety and security needs in the organization. Woolworths require offering as well as implementing different appropriate kind of rewards in an effective manner that will help in optimizing the presentation of the employees in the organization. The content theories combine the process theory in such a manner that this will help in shaping the degree of effort and continuation of effort of the employees (Deci and Ryan 2014). The proper mixture of the equity and process theories will help in motivating the different employees who are working in Woolworths Company. The equity and Maslows hierarchy needs has to be analyzed in such a manner that this will help in meeting the requirements and preferences of the customers in an effective manner (Olafsen et al. 2015). Maslows theory This is one of the most extensively used theories of motivation and American psychologist Abraham Maslow hypothesized it in the 1940s and 1950s. There are five needs in the hierarchy that progressed from lower needs of orders to the higher order needs. There are two kind of needs that include: Growth Needs Self actualization Needs- realizing the self fulfillment along with seeking personal growth (Nie et al. 2015) Esteem Needs Esteem for one self that includes independence and achievement and desire for dignity includes prestige and status (Fareed and Jan 2016) Deficiency Needs Social Needs- Acceptance and Trust, Giving affection and love Safety Needs- Security, Stability and order Physiological Needs Air, Food, Shelter and Sleep The Maslows Hierarchy Theory of the motivation helps the different managers in the organizations in motivating the employees. The CEO of the respective company Woolworths has applied the entire Maslows Hierarchy theory in such a manner that this will help in analyzing the different requirements of the employees in the organization. The different physiological needs of the employees are taken care in an effective manner as this helps in learning about the new skills in the management process. The basic physiological needs of the company have to be identified, as this will help in qualifying them for new skills (Singh and Behera 2016). Furthermore, the safety needs has to be identified in such a manner that this helps CEO Brad Banducci do common things that will help in making the workplace more efficient and effective. The CEO of the company helps in understanding along with addressing the requirements of the employees in such a manner that harbors the participation of the employees. The esteem needs are properly taken care by the higher officials of the company wherein the self respect and achievement and recognition for the different efforts that has been taken into consideration. The different identification of the needs has to be done in such a manner that this will help the company officials to understand the self-actualization needs (Nie et al. 2015). Criticisms levelled against Maslows Hierarchy Theory As there are different appreciations for the theory, there are different criticisms of the respective theory that are as follows: The different researchers have proved that there is be deficient in the hierarchical structure of the different requirements that is suggested by Maslow wherein each individual has different ordering for the satisfaction of the needs (Lawter, Kopelman and Prottas 2015) The other problem is that there is lack of cause and effect relationship between behavior as well as need. There has to be one particular need that may lead to different kind of behavior in different kind of individuals. On the other hand, a particular kind of behavior of the individuals may be result of different requirements. Therefore, the hierarchy is not as simple as it looks simple in nature (Cherry 2014) Requirement and satisfaction of the different needs is psychological feeling as there are times when the person himself/herself is not aware about their own needs and requirements, therefore it is not possible for the manager to understand the needs of the individuals in the market There are individuals wherein the hierarchy of needs does not exist simply as there are different requirements at different levels. There is different self-actualization requirements cannot afford to forget his/her food. But the criticism is solved by Maslow in such a manner that the needs are overlapping and interdependent in nature The other problem with the theory of Maslows Hierarchy Theory is operationalisation of different concepts in such a manner that it will be difficult for the different researchers to test the theory Despite of different factors of criticism in the theory of Maslow, there are different offerings of the needs and motives and this helps in motivating the different individuals in an effective manner. Woolworths Company has applied the Maslows Hierarchy theory in such a manner that this helped in maintaining the confidence among the employees in the organization. The self actualization requirements of the company has been adopted in such a manner that this will help in maintaining proper balance between the different needs that is required to be adopted by the organization. Herzbergs theory The Fredrick Herzberg and his associates have developed Hygiene and Motivation theory that is also known as two factor theory in the late 1950s and 1960s. As per Fredrick Herzberg, there are different hygiene and maintenance factors that are as follows: Company administration and policy is one of the hygiene factors wherein the structure of the pay has to be appropriate and reasonable in nature. It has to be competitive and equal in nature and the policies of the company should not be rigid in nature. This must include flexible working hours along with vacation and breaks Inter personal relationships between peers and subordinates are essential in nature as this helps in maintaining cordial kind of relationship between the different subordinates in the organization. There should not be any kind of inter personal conflict between the supervisors and subordinates Job security is essential in the organizations as this helps in providing the employees proper security that is essential as this will motivate them to perform well in the organization Status and working conditions is essential in the organizations, as this will help in maintaining proper status in an effective manner. The status of the employees in different organizations has to be familiar and retained Inter personal relationship with supervisor is essential in nature in the different organizations in an effective manner. It has to be acceptable and appropriate in nature as this will reduce the conflict between the different employees and supervisors On the other hand, there are motivational factors and the hygiene factors cannot be considered as the motivators. The motivational factors help in yielding the positive satisfaction among the different individuals or employees in the organization. These different factors help in inheriting the work of the individuals are satisfiers. The different motivational factors are as follows: Recognition is one of the factors wherein the employees will be praised along with recognized for the different accomplishments of the different managers. Proper sense of achievement is essential in nature as this helps in depending on the job and there will be fruitful results of the job that is performed by them in the organization Promotional and growth opportunities is essential in nature in the organizations as this kind of growth and promotional activities will help in motivating the individuals in the organization Meaningfulness of work is essential in nature as this will help in motivating the employees by providing challenging work and help them to perform better in the future as well Responsibility is essential wherein the employees are held responsible for the tasks that are performed by them. The managers of the organization has to be given ownership of the different tasks that is performed by them Brad Banducci, the CEO of Woolworths Company by looking into the different kind of factors that is essential in nature for the employees of the organization. The different motivational factors are essential in nature, as this will help in providing recognition to the individuals at the workplace. According to the respective theory, it can be analyzed that the responsibility has to be taken by the different employers in such a manner that this will help in solving the queries of the employees. Criticisms levelled against Herzbergs theory It is not conclusive in nature and the theory of Herzberg is limited to accountants and engineers. The critics have said that the entire theory is not conclusive in nature as there are different white-collar workers and employees who love challenging tasks. On the other hand, there are different workers who are general are motivated with the help of different incentives and pay. There are different effects of motivational factors and hygiene can be reverse in nature on some other categories of individuals. The Herzberg theory has given emphasis on the enrichment of the job and has ignored the job totally that will affect the satisfaction of the individuals in the workplace. He did not attach and provide importance to the status, pay or interpersonal relationship that is held as the great kind of motivators. The respective theory helps in providing guidelines to the different managers for job structuring in order to include different factors in the job such as this will bring satisfaction The last criticism of the theory is directed at the methodology of data and research collection. There were different interviewers who were asked to provide their views on their experience that can be good or bad in nature. This kind of methodology was defective in nature as the information that will be generated will be biased along with subjective in nature Assumptions of Theory X An average kind of employee does not like to work and tries to escape such situations in the organization as well. As there are such kinds of employees in the organization, it is essential in nature for the higher officials in the management has to be persuaded, warned and compelled, as this will help them in achieving such goals in the organization. A proper and effective supervision is required from the end of the higher officials in order to make the employees perform the tasks. These kinds of employees resist change in the organization and they are generally the ones who dislike responsibilities and do not perform their tasks accordingly. These employees are required to be enticed in order to perform better in the organization and deliver positive results. Assumptions of Theory Y The employees of the organization can perceive the job as normal and relaxing in nature. The employees in the organization exercise their different mental and physical efforts in an inherent manner. The employees who are under the category of theory Y are the ones who use self-direction and self-control in an effective manner. These help the employees in performing better in the organization and gain huge productivity for the entire organization as well. The job that is performed by the employees is rewarding along with satisfying in nature, it is essential for the company to provide them different bonus and incentives that will increase their morale to perform the tasks in an effective manner. This will help in teaching the employees to take responsibility themselves. The theory Y employees have different capabilities and skills that help them in utilizing their innovativeness in the different tasks performed by them. Brad Banducci, the CEO of Woolworths has motivated the employees in an effective manner, as the theory Y is valid in the respective organization. The employees who are working in Woolworths are the ones who show participation style of the management and they are motivated employees who fulfill their goals in an effective manner. The different employees who are working in lower level in Woolworths, Australia are involved in the decision-making and they have more responsibility (Firestone 2014). The employees who are working in Woolworths are self-motivated and they are self-directed in nature that performs their tasks in an effective manner. Furthermore, there can be different employees at work who falls under the category Theory X wherein they do not perform on their own. They are the ones who dislike work and do not perform the tasks on time as well (Grbz, ?ahin and Kksal 2014). The higher officials of Woolworths Company have taken different steps to control such employees and generate productivity in the organization as well. The employees who are working in the respective organization Woolworths is working under Carrot and Stick approach and they are performing well when they are threatened in order to perform well (Cerasoli and Ford 2014). The theory X and theory Y helps in pertaining for providing motivation to the employees that has been utilized in the human resource management along with organizational development. Hofstedes work through to the theories of motivation The particular model is a framework for the cross-cultural kind of communication that has been developed by Geert Hofstede. The Hofstedes work helps in understanding the culture of the society in such a manner that it has value on the customers using factor analysis in an effective manner (Hur 2017). Woolworths Supermarket is based in Australia wherein the effect of the culture of the entire Australian society has to be analyzed in order to understand the impact on the motivational theories that is followed in Woolworths. The dimensions of the Hofstedes theory are as follows: Power Distance- The dimension helps in understanding that the individuals in the society are not equal (Colbert, Yee and George 2016). It is the extent to which less powerful members of organization within country accept and expect power that is distributed in an unequal manner. The score of Australia is low (36) in nature and Woolworths follows and establish this for convenience in the organization. The communication process is direct, participative and informal in nature (Mayer 2014). Avoidance of uncertainty- The extent to which the different members in the organization of culture feel ambiguous and threatened and this have created institutions and beliefs to avoid such situations in an effective manner. Australia has scored 51 on the particular dimension (Boo, Drnyei and Ryan 2015). Femininity vs. Masculinity- Australia scores 61 on the particular dimension as the society of Australia is considered as Masculine society. In Woolworths, there are employees who are males and the number of females is less in comparison to the male employees (Cerasoli, Nicklin and Ford 2014) From the diagram and the dimensions of the Hofstedes work, it can be analyzed that the entire Australian society is considered Masculine society as the males are given more preferences than the females (Hewett and Conway 2016). Woolworths Company, Australia requires to adopt the different motivational theories such as Maslows Hierarchy Theory, Herzbergs Theory and McGregors theory in such a way that this will help in following the diverse dimensions of the organization (Karnatovskaia et al. 2015). The social and esteem needs of the Maslows Hierarchy theory has to be related with the culture of the society of the country along with the organization. The cultural aspect has to be kept in mind in such a manner that this will help in analyzing the job security of the employees in the organization (Miner 2015). For instance- Furthermore, the theory X and theory Y has to be applied in Woolworths Company in such a way that this will help in motivating the employees with the help of analyzing the cultural aspects of Australia. There are number of employees who fall under the category of Theory X and they dislike working, however there are employees who fall under Theory Y category wherein they are self-directed and self-motivated in order to perform their tasks in an effective manner (Corr et al. 2016). The cultural aspects of the respective society have to be analyzed in an effective manner that will help in solving the issues within the entire organization and in the respective organization as well (Bojadziev et al. 2016). Conclusion Therefore, it can be concluded that there are different kind of motivational theories that is followed by Woolworths Company, Australia. It has been explained that the theories of motivation has to be linked with the cultural aspects of the company and society of Australia in such manner that this will help in maintaining and establishing such needs in an effective manner. The Hofstedes six-dimension approach has been analyzed in an effective manner that provides different kind of individualism and collectivism approach in the respective organization. The three theories related to motivation have been linked with six dimension Hofstedes approach that helped in linking the motivational approach with the Hofstedes approach. References Alshmemri, M., Shahwan-Akl, L. and Maude, P., 2017. Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory.Life Science Journal,14(5). Bojadziev, M., Stefanovska-Petkovska, M., Handziski, V. and Barlakoska, G., 2016. Age Related Preferences of Leadership Style: Testing McGregors Theory X and Y.Journal of Management Research,8(4), pp.187-207. Boo, Z., Drnyei, Z. and Ryan, S., 2015. L2 motivation research 20052014: Understanding a publication surge and a changing landscape.System,55, pp.145-157. Cerasoli, C.P. and Ford, M.T., 2014. Intrinsic motivation, performance, and the mediating role of mastery goal orientation: A test of self-determination theory.The Journal of psychology,148(3), pp.267-286. Cerasoli, C.P., Nicklin, J.M. and Ford, M.T., 2014. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological bulletin, 140(4), p.980. Cherry, K., 2014. Hierarchy of needs.The Five Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. About. com Guide. Colbert, A., Yee, N. and George, G., 2016. The digital workforce and the workplace of the future.Academy of Management Journal,59(3), pp.731-739. Corr, P.J., McNaughton, N., Wilson, M.R., Hutchison, A., Burch, G. and Poropat, A., 2016. Neuroscience of Motivation and Organizational Behavior: Putting the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) to Work. InRecent Developments in Neuroscience Research on Human Motivation(pp. 65-92). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M., 2014. Autonomy and need satisfaction in close relationships: Relationships motivation theory. InHuman motivation and interpersonal relationships(pp. 53-73). Springer Netherlands. Fareed, K. and Jan, F.A., 2016. Cross-Cultural Validation Test of Herzberg's Two Factor Theory: An Analysis of Bank Officers Working in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.Journal of Managerial Sciences,10(2). Firestone, W.A., 2014. Teacher evaluation policy and conflicting theories of motivation.Educational Researcher,43(2), pp.100-107. Gagn, M., Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M., 2017. Self-determination theory applied to a work motivation and organizational behavior.The SAGE handbook of Industrial, Work, and Organizational Psychology (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Gerhart, B. and Fang, M., 2015. Pay, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, performance, and creativity in the workplace: Revisiting long-held beliefs.Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav.,2(1), pp.489-521. Grbz, S., ?ahin, F. and Kksal, O., 2014. Revisiting of Theory X and Y: A multilevel analysis of the effects of leaders managerial assumptions on followers attitudes.Management Decision,52(10), pp.1888-1906. Hewett, R. and Conway, N., 2016. The undermining effect revisited: The salience of everyday verbal rewards and self?determined motivation.Journal of Organizational Behavior,37(3), pp.436-455. Hur, Y., 2017. Testing Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory of Motivation in the Public Sector: Is it Applicable to Public Managers?.Public Organization Review, pp.1-15. Karnatovskaia, L.V., Gajic, O., Bienvenu, O.J., Stevenson, J.E. and Needham, D.M., 2015. A holistic approach to the critically ill and Maslow's hierarchy.Journal of critical care,30(1), pp.210-211. Lawter, L., Kopelman, R.E. and Prottas, D.J., 2015. McGregor's theory X/Y and job performance: A multilevel, multi-source analysis.Journal of Managerial Issues,27(1-4), p.84. Lazaroiu, G., 2015. Employee Motivation and Job Performance.Linguistic and Philosophical Investigations,14, p.97. Mayer, R.E., 2014. Incorporating motivation into multimedia learning.Learning and Instruction,29, pp.171-173 Miner, J.B., 2015.Organizational behavior 1: Essential theories of motivation and leadership. Routledge. Nie, Y., Chua, B.L., Yeung, A.S., Ryan, R.M. and Chan, W.Y., 2015. The importance of autonomy support and the mediating role of work motivation for well?being: Testing self?determination theory in a Chinese work organisation.International Journal of Psychology,50(4), pp.245-255. Olafsen, A.H., Halvari, H., Forest, J. and Deci, E.L., 2015. Show them the money? The role of pay, managerial need support, and justice in a self?determination theory model of intrinsic work motivation.Scandinavian journal of psychology,56(4), pp.447-457. Singh, T. and Behera, M.P., 2016. Application of the Maslow's Hierarchy of Need Theory: Impacts and Implications on Employee's Career Stages.Training Development Journal,7(2), pp.43-52. Woolworthsgroup.com.au. (2018). Woolworths Group: Quality Brands and Trusted Retailing. [online] Available at: https://www.woolworthsgroup.com.au [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018]. Zameer, H., Ali, S., Nisar, W. and Amir, M., 2014. The impact of the motivation on the employees performance in beverage industry of Pakistan.International journal of academic research in accounting, finance and management sciences,4(1), pp.293-

Kurt Vonnegut Essays (1898 words) - Kurt Vonnegut,

Kurt Vonnegut Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. is a contemporary American author whose works have been described by Richard Giannone as comic masks covering the tragic farce that is our contemporary life (Draper, 3784). Vonnegut's life has had a number of significant influences on his works. Influences from his personal philosophy, his life and experiences, and his family are evident elements in his works. Among his comic masks are three novels: Cat's Cradle, The Sirens of Titan, and God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater. Throughout these novels, elements such as attitude, detail, narrative technique, setting, and theme can be viewed with more understanding when related to certain aspects of his life. These correlations are best examined in terms of each influence. One of the most significant influences from Vonnegut's life on his personal philosophy has been his participation in World War II. During the war, Vonnegut served in the American army in Europe and was captured by German soldiers. As a prisoner of war, he witnessed the Allied bombing of the city of Dresden, in which more than 135,000 people died due to the resulting fires (Draper, 3785). This experience had a profound impact on Vonnegut. From it, he developed his existential personal philosophy and his ideas about the evils of technology. He states, I am the enemy of all technological progress that threatens mankind (Nuwer, 39). The influence of Dresden shows up in each of the novels. In Cat's Cradle, one element of his experience at Dresden that Vonnegut portrays is his fear of technology. Initially, the intention of the story is for the narrator to write about what the scientists who invented the atomic bomb were doing the day it was dropped on Hiroshima. To this effect, one of the scientists in the story said, Science has now known sin, to which another replied, What is sin? (Vonnegut, Cradle, 21). The focus on technology quickly changes to a material called ice-nine, which has the ability to freeze water at room temperature. This technological breakthrough, by a scientist who worked on developing the atomic bomb, has the ability to destroy the world by freezing all its water. Even though the people with ice-nine are very careful all through the plot, they lose control of it in the end and the world becomes frozen. With ice-nine, Vonnegut thematically demonstrates how relatively simple technology can lay waste to the world, as the Allies did to Dresden (Draper, 3785). Cat's Cradle is an excellent example of Vonnegut's existentialism, a philosophy that emphasizes the uniqueness and isolation of the individual experience in. . . [an] indifferent universe, [and] regards human existence as unexplainable (Bookshelf '94). Before the novel even starts, just below the dedication, he declares, Nothing in this book is true. 'Live by the foma [harmless untruths] that make you brave and kind and healthy and happy' (Vonnegut, Cradle). Vonnegut carries this concept all through the story, that the universe is meaningless and each person must exist for oneself. He even goes to the extent of inventing a religion, Bokononism, with which humans attempt to make some sense of everything, while realizing that everything is nonsensical. Vonnegut's existential philosophy also takes the form of a religion in The Sirens of Titan. The Church of God the Utterly Indifferent is established, on the principle that puny man can do nothing at all to help or please God Almighty, and Luck is not the hand of God (Vonnegut, Sirens, 180). Toward the end of the story, two existential ideas are developed: first that human life is incomprehensible (in this case controlled by aliens from another planet for a trivial purpose), and second that people must make a meaning for life on their own. When one character states, The worst thing that could possibly happen. . . would be to not be used for anything by anybody, Vonnegut is suggesting that a good meaning for life might simply be to be useful (Vonnegut, Sirens, 310). The theme and plot of meaninglessness and uselessness mirror Vonnegut's experiences in the aftermath of Dresden (Amer. Lit. Bio., 301, 303-304). God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater also exhibits elements of Vonnegut's take on technology and existentialism in plot and theme. The protagonist, millionaire Eliot Rosewater,

“What Were the Major Reasons for the Creation of the State of Israel Essays

â€Å"What Were the Major Reasons for the Creation of the State of Israel Essays â€Å"What Were the Major Reasons for the Creation of the State of Israel Essay â€Å"What Were the Major Reasons for the Creation of the State of Israel Essay The state of Israel emerged on May 15, 1948. It was the first Jewish state to be established in nearly 2,000 years and was the culmination of efforts by the Jews to secure a homeland for themselves.This paper will explore the major reasons for its creation. It will be shown to be a long enduring quest that has biblical origins. Subsequently both biblical history and geography will be worthy of mention as they are integral to the question I will furthermore suggest that the Jewish belief from the bible forms a basis for motivation for the creation of a state. Allied with this belief is the persecution sufferred by Jews when they dispersed worldwide during exile.This persecution, they felt, could end if they were able to realise a state of their own, whereby they would be able to govern and protect themselves from others who would persecute them. However, the bible and events thousands of years ago have been ‘stepping stones’ in the outcome of 1948 . Accordingly, I will concentrate on the more recent ‘stepping stones’ that facilitated the creation of the Israel state. Some of the areas that have been selected include the Zionist Movement, World War One, World War Two and myriad of politics that came to the fore during this period.In particular I will discuss the Balfour Declaration and its effect on the situation, and comment on whether it was a turning point in the Zionist quest for the creation of the state of Israel. 2 Two more points are worthy of mention. Firstly, this paper does not intend to debate or suggest an Arab versus Israel, Jew versus Muslim situation even though their religions are different and and are a factor. Secondly, it is not a debate on the Palestinian claim for the land in question.It is rather an exploration on ‘why’ Jews sought this area of land and the subsequent chain of events whereby this was successfully realised in 1948. GEOGRAPHICAL, BIBLICAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The area of Israel, formerly Palestine, is at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea and is bounded by Lebanon in the north, to the north east by Syria, to the east and south east by Jordan and to the south west by Egypt. To the west is the Mediterranean Sea. Its total area is about 23,000 square kilometres (Harper 1986, p. 4) This particular area, as one of the oldest recorded in mankind’s civilisation has experienced numerous occupations. However, this situation sees two main ‘claimants’ to the land. The Palestinian claim is simple; they believe they were first inhabitants of the land descending from the ancient tribes of the Philistines and Canaanites. They argue the land is theirs perhaps much the same as the French regard France as their country, for example. The Jewish claim is not as straight forward. It has a complex historical and biblical argument. On the religious level, the Jews believe that God promised Palestine to them. The Book of Genesis in th e bible’s Old Testament records that Abraham, the father of the Jews, was told by God â€Å"the whole land of Canaan , where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you†. (Harper, 1986 p. 16) The Jews claim their right to this land originates directly from the bible. Historically, the Jewish claim to Palestine rests on Jewish habitation, there from about 1300 B. C. hen the tribes of Israel (after initial exile from there due to famine) escaped under Moses’ leadership from Egypt, where they were enslaved, entered and conquered Palestine from the Canaanites, Philistines and other tribes living there. This occupation lasted some 700 years. From then on there was a series of occupations such as Romans, Persians and Turks. (Cattan, H. , 1971 p. 148) It should be mentioned at this stage, religion plays an important role in the situation. Palestine is the Holy Land of three of the world’s major religions Islam, Judaism and Christianity.They all have significant historical and religious sites in this region. (Harper, 1986, p. 17) The biblical claim, supported by the historical claim by the Jews, is at the heart of the major reasons for the creation of the state of Israel. Its creation was based on the belief by Jews that the land was promised to them by God. Even though there has been a series of ‘take overs’ and occupations by others in this area and the occurrence of numerous ‘persecutions’ of Jews (which will be commented on later 4 n greater detail) worldwide since, causing other reasons for Jews to seek refuge in a homeland of their own, the Biblical reasons should not be underestimated as a major factor for the state of Israel being realised in the first place. It was after Jewish exile and disaspora thereafter worldwide and the subsequent ramifications of this that caused renewed motivation for the creation of the Jewish state. One such example came i n the form of Zionism. ZIONISM Since the abovementioned exile, the Jews experienced a broad disaspora and settled in numerous parts of the world, notably Europe and the United States.There had been many persecutions of the Jews during this period. In particular, this occurred during the nineteenth century in Russia and eastern Europe, where there were many incidents of violence. These events caused a political movement called Zionism to emerge. This was the earliest organised claim by the Jews to Palestine and commenced in 1897. Zionism’s founder was an Hungarian Jew, Theodor Herzl. He believed strongly that anti-Semitism would occur in any nation which contained Jews.It is important to add that at this stage of world history many parts were being divided up into smaller individual states. This gave an independance from previous rulers and importantly gave an opportunity to manage and protect affairs. This development gives rise to a major reason for the state of Isreal being formed. If a state was created for the Jews in which to live, they could govern independantly and 5 therefore provide an opportunity to defend and protect themselves from persecutors. Without its creation, they reasoned, the persecution would simply continue.In 1897, Herzl led the first Zionist congress whereby the motivation was harnessed in the form of a programme which preferred the ideal of the establishment of a publicly and legally secured home in Palestine for the Jewish people. At first though, other sites for the Jewish people were considered; in Africa and South America. These were resisted as the Zionists realised the emotional attraction of Palestine could be a powerful force if harnessed to a political ideology. This period was important in that it was a re-awakening for many Jews unhappy with the way they had been treated.The movement gradually gained strength and momentum and organisation and created a significant wave of Jewish emigration back into Palestine. The Je ws set up many settlements on land purchased from absentee Arab landlords. Much of the money needed was funded by the increasingly powerful Zionist Movement. At the start of this period, Palestine had almost 500,000 Arabs living there compared to the 50,000 Jews. By 1914, 60,000 Jews had emigrated there, purchasing some 100,000 acres of Palestinian land. (Barker, 1980 p. 9)In the chronology of events this period displays the emergence of the Zionists as a vital one in re-establishing the ideals of the Jews and overtly making things happen. This re-awakening caused the ‘ball’ to begin rolling. However, it was World War One that transformed the Zionist prospects for the foundation it had laid. 6 WORLD WAR ONE Palestine was under the control of the Turkish Ottoman Empire and had been so for a considerable time. The Zionists had appealed to the Turks ideas of returning to Palestine which was refused. (Harper, 1986 p. 4). The British however were not so unsympathetic and off erred a small area in the African Continent. Even though this offer to the Zionists was refused, it is an important event in so much as it was an overt offer by the British and a sign of sympathy and understanding in the Zionist quest. The onset of World War One saw an interesting situation develop. When Turkey joined Germany and Austria against Britain, France and Russia, its defeat was expected to bring about the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and thus end Turkish domination of Palestine.This had important ramifications for Zionists, who supported the British, as it would further enhance their chances for their re-establishment in Palestine afterwards. For the Arabs this was important too. They also supported the allies against the Turks, their motivation being the end of the Ottoman rule over them. What soon occurred was to be arguably one of the major and decisive turning points in to the Zionist quest. Before what happened is revealed, an interesting ‘what if’ shou ld be considered ! What if Germany and the Turks had succeeded in World War One thus re-enforcing the Ottoman domination and control of the region?Whilst this can only be 7 speculative at best, one thing is likely the events that occurred due to the victories won during the war would not have been possible had Germany and the Turks won World War One. During World War One, Britain had encouraged the Arab Independence movement but had little intention of giving the Arabs the power they had been promised once the Turks, with invaluable Arab assistance, had been defeated. (Harper, 1986 p. 32) During this period two developments occurred that had important ramifications for both Arabs and Jews.The first was the secret Anglo-French-Russian accord known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement which divided between France and Britain, all of the areas in the region. Arabs recarded this a betrayal by the British, as the region of Palestine came under British control. (Baker, 1986 p. 31) The Zionists b y this time had political roots in Britain. In 1917, thanks to the efforts of Zionist Chaim Weizmann’s lobbying, the British Government issued a document that was to change the course of Middle-Eastern history. In the form of a letter from the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Balfour, a pledge known as the Balfour Declaration was made. THE BALFOUR DECLARATION A TURNING POINT â€Å"His Majesty’s Government views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country†, so said the pledge made by Lord Balfour on behalf of the British Government.This pledge was eventually approved by its allies and subsequently incorporated in the terms of the Leag ue of Nations Mandate over Palestine, granted to Britain in 1922. This mandate was one of the major turning points in the Zionist quest. It not only had been agreed to by the British, but endorsed by its allies. Furthermore, it had been achieved without any consultation or negotiation with the incumbent inhabitants the Palestinians. The fact that this was done indicates that Britain was prepared to not only implement the mandate but enforce it regardless of any resistance.This mandate then saw a wave of immigration into Palestine by the Jews. However, the mandate was not the only reason for mass migration of Jews. During the 1930’s when Hitler’s persecution of European Jews gathered momentum, Jewish immigration soared dramatically, so much so that workers had 9 risen to a third of total population there. Out of this saw Arab alarm and subsequent hostility between the two occurred. In the middle of this was the British, trapped by the undertaking of the Balfour declara tion on one hand, and the promises made to the Arabs on the other.In the wake of continual violent confrontations between Jewish settlers and Palestinians, the British were increasingly finding the mandate difficult to maintain. In 1939 the British Government issued a White paper that envisaged the creation of a bi-national state of Palestine that limited Jewish immigration. (Cattan, H. 1971 p. 150) This was denounced as a betrayal by the Zionists. In an effort to placate the problem, the British had in so doing, incensed the situation further and violence was experienced.The British, as well, by this time had other more pressing problems in the wake of World War Two. This period also saw the important emergence of a militant aspect of the Jews, which stood apart from the increasing organisation and administration of the Zionists. Instead of immigration slowing down, the opposite occurred. Illegal immigration and settlement was stepped up and mass sabotage and resistance was organis ed or effected by the Zionists. This was a clear indicator that the Zionists, with their ‘foot in the door’ had no ntention of stopping in their quest for the creation of their own state. 10 WORLD WAR TWO During the war there was a general truce between the Zionist and British with the Jews feeling that until Germany was defeated, disruption of the British bases could not be justified. Indeed, during the war years, the British even trained some of the Jewish officers, thereby increasing the Jewish knowledge and ability even further. (Barker, 1980 p. 12) After the war, significant realisations came to the fore that ultimately assisted the Jewish cause. But it came at a huge cost.The systematic murder of six million Jews in the Nazi Germany holocaust caused near universal support for the Zionists’ effort to secure a new, safe future within an independent state. The significance of the holocaust points to another major turning point. The political sympathy and subse quent influence of a powerful United States after the war ensured the debate increased. Furthermore, Britain was not the power it used to be as a consequence of depletion both economically and materially, Britain was more than ever dependent and influenced by the Americans. THE UNITED NATIONSIn the United States a powerful and influential Jewish community mobilised itself to persuade the government to back Zionist ideals. 11 In 1947, the British Government turned to the United Nations for assistance in solving the situation in Palestine. On November 29 the United Nations General Assembly, after strong American pressure by President Truman, voted to partition Palestine into Arab and Jewish states. This plan was eagerly welcomed by Jews but denounced by the Arabs. At the same time the British declared an end to the mandate due to cease May 14, 1948. Barker, 1980 p. 12) The United Nations’ decision was another major turning point. The power and influence of the fledgling United Nations was being tested and of course brought many new countries into the bitter lobbying process that occurred. The dispute had now become the resposibility of many new countries that were part of the UN. THE CREATION OF THE STATE During the period of the United Nations decision and the British mandate withdrawal, both Jew and Arab saw tensions increase between each other. There were many violent uprisings.In one such incident, at the Arab village of Deir Yassin, 254 civilian inhabitants were massacred by the Jews. This along with other events, saw a mass exodus of fearful Palestinians to neighbouring states. By this time the tide had turned. The Zionists had been systematically preparing for war and were well organised and trained. Terrorism was rampant and the British did 12 little to stop violence in the last days of their mandate. In fact, during the British withdrawal of troops, a distinct direction of neutrality was demonstrated.On May 14, 1948, just prior to the last withdr awal of British troops thereby ending the mandate, Ben Gurion read Israel’s Declaration of Independence to a Jewish audience in Tel Aviv. A provisional government was formed which was instantly recognised by two of the emerging superpowers, the United States and Russia. Thereupon the realisation of Jewish dreams had been fulfilled. 13 SUMMARY This paper has discussed the major reasons for the creation of the state of Israel. The quest for statehood and independence has been sought by Jews for nearly 2000 years.Both biblical and historical claims have significance in this discussion and are, I have argued, form a basis of Jewish beliefs for independence. However, it is the series of events that have occurred from the 19th and 20th centuries that real progress has been made in attaining the state of Israel. The ‘stepping stones’ of events have, it has been discussed, all played roles in facilitating the quest. Some have been more important than others. The ‘B alfour Declaration’ in particular was offered as a major turning point in the Zionist quest.So too the Jewish need to create a place so as to protect them from the experiences of persecution. The Jewish origins coupled with the recent events of the 20th century relate to each other and in between the ‘stepping stones’ of incidents have culminated in the outcome of the acquisition of an independant state of Isreal.BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOK REFERENCES: Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 15th Edition, (1982), International Press, New York, U. S. A. , Volume 10 p 886; Volume 1 p 758 Barker, A. J. (1980), Arab Israeli Wars Ian Allan Ltd. , Shepperton, Surrey, England, pp 9 43 Bible (1976), Old Testament American Bible Society, pp 4 88 Bromley, S. (1994), Rethinking Middle East Politics Edited by Polity Press, Cambridge, U. K. pp 6 16 Cattan, H. (1971), The Palestine Problem: The Palestinian viewpoint in the Middle East: a handbook Edited by M. Adams, Great Britain, Anthony Bland Lt d. , pp 146 160 Harper, P. (1986), The Arab Israeli Issue. Wayland Publishers, West Sussex, England, pp 8 43 Mansfield, P. (1992), A History of the Middle East Penguin Books, London, England, pp 1 7 ; pp 85 135 Miller, A. (1988), The Palestinians: the past as prologue Current History, Volume 87, number 526, pp 73 76 ; pp 83- 85

Stewart’s Calculus 8th Edition, Section 1.1, Question 2, Pg. 19

Stewart’s Calculus 8th Edition, Section 1.1, Question 2, Pg. 19 SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips This posts contains a Teaching Explanation. You can buy Calculus by Stewart here. Why You Should Trust Me: I’m Dr. Fred Zhang, and I have a bachelor’s degree in math from Harvard. I’ve racked up hundreds and hundreds of hours of experienceworking withstudents from 5th gradethroughgraduate school, and I’m passionate about teaching. I’ve read the whole chapter of the text beforehand and spent a good amount of time thinking about what the best explanation is and what sort of solutions I would have wanted to see in the problem sets I assigned myself when I taught. Question: If $f(x) = (x^2-x)/(x-1)$ and $g(x)=x$, is it true that f=g? Page in 8th Edition: 19 Short Answer: No, f≠  g. For input x = 1, f(1) is undefined since the denominator is zero, whereas g(1) = 1. Homework Answer: Same as short answer. Motivated Answer:We’re asked if f = g, but the equations for f and g look very different. You might be tempted to say, â€Å"No the functions are different because the equations look different.† However, functions can be the same even if the equations look very different. Remember, functions take in inputs, and spit out outputs. Two functions are only equal if they always give you the same outputfor a given input.You can’t manually test every possible input value using pen and paper, since it would take up too much time! But you can try to test whether the equations are the same. So we can write:$$(x^2-x)/(x-1) =? x$$(Here =? means, we’re not sure yet if it’s equal or not.) Now if you’ve taken algebra before, you might recognize that you can write this as$$(x^2-x)/(x-1)=(x(x-1))/(x-1)=? x$$It’s tempting to cancel out the (x-1) and conclude that$x(x-1)/(x-1) = x$, but this is not perfectly true. Remember when you cancel things out from the top and bottom of the fraction, the bottom cannot equal zero. This means that we have the caveat here is that x-1≠  0.If x – 1≠  0 in this cancellation, then x≠ 1. This gives us the clue we need to get the answer, which is that we can try to put 1 into both equations.$f(1)=(1^2– 1)/(1-1)$ ,so f is not defined at $x=1$. $g(1) = 1$, so g is defined at$x=1$.Now, we’ve proven that f≠ g. Remember, if we can find for any input x, the functions f and g give different outputs, then f and g are different, no matter how similar f and g are for other inputs! Get full textbook solutions for just $5/month. PrepScholar Solutions has step-by-step solutions that teach you critical concepts and help you ace your tests. With 1000+ top texts for math, science, physics, engineering, economics, and more, we cover all popular courses in the country, including Stewart's Calculus. Try a 7-day free trial to check it out. Video Solution:

Are We Academic Capitalists Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Are We Academic Capitalists - Assignment Example The current trend of education is grounded on academic capitalism. Faculty and students are viewed in terms of generating revenue and commercial value. Capitalism includes the reshaping the organizational sites, professional workforce, and terms of academic responsibilities to achieve the goals of the academic capitalists. The United States school program is integrated with the monopolistic capitalism. The line between the public and private institution was unclear. To financially survive, schools trained students to fill the needs of industry. Faculty members are defined as managed professionals. The following cases show capitalism is permeating the academic institutions. Case1. An increasingly part time profession. In Eastern Oregon State College and other academic institutions, the academic capitalists to hire terminated full time faculty members as part time teachers. Later, the part time faculty was reduced to teach only status. Lastly, the same faculty member was retrenched. Ca se 2. An increasingly managed profession. In 1982, the President of Sonoma State University insisted he had to revise the current programs. The school had to resolve the declining enrollment issue. Resolution included retrenchment of 53 full time faculty members. Senior was the basis for terminating faculty members. Case 3. An increasingly Capitalistic Profession, globally. Ronald Collins, New Wave University in Australia, Water Systems Institute head. Collins use direct product revenues, grants, and royalties to financially keep his group surviving. The institute generated more funds compared to the University. The institute hired more employees compared faculty members. Case 4. Increasingly commoditized faculty-graduate student relationships. At Nouveau University, commercialization of the academic institution widened the gap between faculty members and the students. Part time faculty members have increase by more than 43 percent. Businesses partnered with schools to generate mark ets for a new product or service. Full time faculty members were replaced by part time faculty members. PART II. The article The Neo-Liberal University (Slaugher &&Rhoades, 2000) emphasized public colleges and universities typify the neoliberalism-based entities. The academe supports the corporate competitiveness by playing major parts in the knowledge-based global economy. The academe trains students to blend with industry by becoming industry’s future leaders or managers of major corporations. Likewise, schools train students to create products and processes to fill the needs of the business industry players. Basically, the major goal of schools is to fill industry’s need for global competitiveness. Academic capitalism includes the public colleges and universities’ investment in business ventures. The ventures include startup companies precipitating from the cooperative efforts of the faculty and student s. with the academic setup, the schools’ startup companies do not have to suffer the pains of unprofitable or unsuccessfully business ventures, unlike non-academic business ventures. Public support cushions the ill effects of unsuccessful business ventures. The schools serve the educational needs of students who can afford to pay their school fees. The students use grants, loans and other sources to pay for their educational trainings. The academic institutions’ implementation of a market model translated to a restructuring that benefits the professional and high technology

Marketing planning Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing planning - Assignment Example The shop has established more than 290 shops across the globe but United Kingdom is the core business market for the company (Pret A Manger, 2013b). Schwartz (2004) has rightly pointed out that in previous occasions, companies establish marketing plan on the basis of its allocated budget but now companies decide marketing plan on the basis of its strategic objectives. Schwartz (2004) has also pointed out that modern marketers are emphasizing more on customer satisfaction and customizing the product offering as part of marketing plan. Sheth and Sisodia (2006) have also pointed out that changing pattern of marketing planning includes the marketer’s willingness to incorporate psychological, economic and informational shift of customers as integrated element of market planning. Pret A Manger (2013b) has reported that it earns annual revenue of 380 million pounds from its global business operation, and the company has reported that it has sufficient liquid asset to finance its stra tegic decisions. For example, recently Pret A Manger had struck a deal with by investing more than 1 million pound with Vitrue which is a social media management platform in order to target local youngsters who frequently use social networking sites (NMA Staff, 2012). Digital marketing strategy of the company has also helped them to achieve $280,000 increased in store operational revenue. Such examples are showing that Pret A Manger has sufficient capabilities in order implement new marketing plan which can be recalibrated in accordance with the customer demand. â€Å"Examine the marketing environment and analyse the internal factors and external factors (such as PEST) assessing the strengths/weaknesses and opportunities/threats in order to conduct a marketing audit† Ans.1b- As UK is the major business interest for Pret A Manger hence the researcher has decided to conduct a strategic audit of the coffee business of the company in context to UK business environment. Letâ€℠¢s try to shed light the coffee industry of UK in order to understand why companies including both restaurants like Starbucks, Pret A Manger etc and retail sellers like Nestle and Green Mountain etc are changing their marketing plan to cater to the demand of Britons. Market Value Market Value Forecast Market Volume Market Volume Forecast Market Share More than $2,500 million with growth rate of 4.8%. The sales volume coffee selling through retail channels and franchisee based restaurants will touch $3,000 million within next three years. 140.7 million kg with growth rate of 0.7%. The market volume will touch 150 million kg mark within next couple of years. Tata Global Beverages Limited and Starbucks are the market leader with consolidated market share of more than 29%. (Marketline, 2012a) It is evident from the above statistics that there is ample opportunity exist for Pret A Manger in order to penetrate more in UK coffee industry but they need to create a sustainable marketing plan to achieve a niche position. Now, the researcher will try to understand the business environment for Pret A Manger by considering both internal and external factors. PEST will be used to external environment analysis and Porter Five force will used for internal market audit. Table 1: PEST External Environment Characteristics Opportunity for Pret

Getting The Extra Bit Out Of Your Employees Essay Example for Free

Getting The Extra Bit Out Of Your Employees Essay An employee is required to contribute 40 to 48 hours of productive work in terms of service or visible output. The very purpose of employment is for the employer to generate enough revenue so that he can not only pay your wages, but also make some profit for himself and retain a portion of the profits for contingencies. It is widely accepted that in most cases though the employer is required by law to pay the employee for all the 365 days of the year, the employee output is restricted to some 250 days or in that region. Thus, even when the employee is not working, the employer has to support him/her. The manufacturing sector can lay down norms to measure the output of each employee and relate it to the quantum of work produced. But, in the services sector it is difficult to quantify the output of each individual. The flow of work can also not be uniform in the case of the services sector. Evaluation: In this context, let us examine the working of a Supermarket. The flow of customers into the supermarket will vary during the day as also during the month. In most cases, the evenings will see more customers coming in, while the mornings will see fewer of them. The noon period of the day can be thinner still. Thus, we have a situation where the productive output of the employee is not available to the employer all through the 7 or 8 hours that he/she spends in the Supermarket. So, the effective throughput (actual time spent in producing goods/services) diminishes to anywhere between 5 and 6 or 4 and 6 hours. The employer has to earn adequate revenue to compensate the employees and even take care of eventualities. Therefore, in most parts of the world, employers, particularly in the services sector, manage to get that extra bit of work done by each employee. Institutions, enterprises or organizations strive continuously to optimize their return on investment and use employee motivation as a major tool to achieve this. After all, it is the collective performance of employees that would manifest itself into a successful enterprise. It is not essential at all times to monetize motivation. There are several other means of motivating the employees to get optimal results. For example, in the case under discussion, we need to get an extra 30 minutes of work from each employee. The employer is unwilling to pay for that extra time or simply cannot afford to. So many terminologies and reasons will be attributed to safeguard that extra bit of money. But, heads of departments still have to achieve the desired results and with no extra money available in their hands. Conclusion: Though money is very important to employees, other factors go into employment. In the instant case, the manager can explain to the employees that by spending an extra 30 minutes after the scheduled time and reorganizing the merchandise for the next day, they will be able to start right away when they commence work on the following day. Customers walking in during the first hour will be able to transact their business quickly and this in turn will bring in more of such early customers. Another method is to address all the employees together and evolve a pattern whereby some employees can report early for work and leave at the scheduled time, some employees can shrink their breaks to accommodate the extra time required, and some can even leave late. After all, every one of us spend a lions share of the daylight hours in our respective breadwinning activity. With the correct methodology employed, getting employees to contribute 30 minutes of extra work per day can be achieved without denting the employer’s purse.

Legalization of Marijuana :: legalized marijuana

Legalization of Marijuana Marijuana is the cause of much commotion and debating, as the question of legalization becomes more of an issue. Drugs are a major influential force in countries all over the world today. Legalization is an option that has not had a chance, but really should be given one. Although many people feel that legalizing marijuana would increase the amount of drug use, marijuana should be legalized because it will reduce the great amount of money spent on enforcement, and will therefore increase our countries revenue and lessen crime, and will also be useful in treating certain medical conditions. Marijuana, also known as pot, weed, bud, herb, ghanja, grass, wacky tabacci, funky bhudda, green, indo, mary jane, hemp, kif, bones, funny stuff, etc. is a substance obtained from the dried leaves and flowering tops of the pistillate hemp plant. It is technically known as cannabis sativa and is a tall, widely cultivated Asian herb of the mulberry family. There are many di fferent ways of getting this drug into one's system. The most common method consists of rolling the finely chopped substance in thin papers to make marijuana cigarettes or joints. It is also smoked through a pipe or through a water filtration system known as a bong. Legalization is considered unnecessary by many people. They feel that it will increase the amount of drug use throughout the world. They state that in many cases, drug users who have quit, quit because of trouble with the law. Legalization would eliminate the legal forces that discourage the users from using or selling drugs. They also say that by making drugs legal, the people who have never tried drugs for fear of getting caught by the law, will have no reason to be afraid anymore and will become users (Snyder, 1988). Legalization will be profitable to global economies in two ways. It will allow for money spent on drug law enforcement to be spent more wisely and it will increase revenue. There have been escalating cost s spent on the war against drugs and countless dollars spent on rehabilitation. Every year in the United States, ten billion dollars are spent on enforcing drug laws alone. Drug violators accounted for about forty percent of all criminals in federal prisons (Marijuana retains.., 1990, p.A-6). In 1989, a Republican county executive of Mercer County, N.J., estimated that it would costs approximately one billion dollars to build the jail space required to house all the drug users in Trenton alone(Talah, 1993, p.

Literary Translation Essay

Literary studies have always, explicitly or implicitly, presupposed a certain notion of `literariness’ with which it has been able to delimit its domain, specify, and sanction its methodologies and approaches to its subject. This notion of `literariness’ is crucial for the theoretical thinking about literary translation. In this paper, I have attempted to analyze various recent theoretical positions to the study of literary translation and sought to understand them in the context of the development in the field of literary studies in the last three decades of the twentieth century. The recent developments in the literary studies have radically questioned the traditional essentialist notion of `literariness’ and the idea of canon from various theoretical perspectives. I have contrasted the traditional discourse on literary translation with the recent discourse in order to highlight the shift in the notion of `literariness’ and its impact on translation theory. The traditional essentialist approach to literature, which Lefevere (1988:173) calls `the corpus’ approach is based on the Romantic notion of literature which sees the author as a quasi-divine `creator’ possessing `genius’. He is believed to be the origin of the Creation that is Original, Unique, organic, transcendental and hence sacred. Translation then is a mere copy of the unique entity, which by definition is uncopy-able. As the translator is not the origin of the work of art, he does not possess `genius’, and he is considered merely a drudge, a proletariat, and a shudra in the literary Varna system. This traditional approach is due to the Platonic-Christian metaphysical underpinning of the Western culture. The `original’ versus `copy’ dichotomy is deeply rooted in the Western thought. This is the reason why the West has been traditionally hostile and allergic to the notion of `translation’. The traditional discussion of the problems of literary translation considers finding equivalents not just for lexis, syntax or concepts, but also for features like style, genre, figurative language, historical stylistic dimensions, polyvalence, connotations as well as denotations, cultural items and culture-specific concepts and values. The choices made by the translators like the decision whether to retain stylistic features of the source language text or whether to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original become all the more important in the case of literary translation. For instance, whether to translate Chaucer into old Marathi or contemporary are very important. In the case of translating poetry, it is vital for a translator to decide whether the verse should be translated into verse, or into free verse or into prose. Most of the scholars and translators like Jakobson (1991:151) believe that in the case of poetry though it is â€Å"by definition impossible †¦ only creative transposition is possible†¦ â€Å". It is the creative dimension of translation that comes to fore in the translation of poetry though nobody seems to be sure of what is meant by creativity in the first place. The word is charged with theological-Romantic connotations typical of the `corpus’ approach to literature. The questions around which the deliberations about translation within such a conceptual framework are made are rather stereotyped and limited: as the literary text, especially a poem is unique, organic whole and original is the translation possible at all? Should translation be `literal’ or `free’? Should it emphasize the content or the form? Can a faithful translation be beautiful? The answers to the question range from one extreme to the other and usually end in some sort of a compromise. The great writers and translators gave their well-known dictums about translations, which reflected these traditional beliefs about it. For Dante (1265-1321) all poetry is untranslatable (cited by Brower 1966: 271) and for Frost (1974-1963) poetry is `that which is lost out of both prose and verse in translation ‘(cited by Webb 203) while Yves Bonnefoy says `You can translate by simply declaring one poem the translation of another† (1991:186-192). On the other hand theorists like Pound (1929, 1950), Fitzgerald (1878) say† †¦Ã‚  the live Dog is better than the dead Lion†, believe in freedom in translation. The others like Nabokov (1955) believe â€Å"The clumsiest of literal translation is a thousand times more useful than prettiest of paraphrase†. Walter Benjamin, Longfellow (1807-81), Schleriermacher, Martindale (1984), seem to favour much more faithful translation or believe in foreignizing the native language. While most of the translators like Dryden are on the side of some sort of compromise between the two extremes. Lefevere has pointed out that most of the writings done on the basis of the concept of literature as a corpus attempt to provide translators with certain guidelines, do’s and don’ts and that these writings are essentially normative even if they don’t state their norms explicitly. These norms, according to Lefevere, are not far removed from the poetics of a specific literary period or even run behind the poetics of the period (1988:173). Even the approaches based on the `objective’ and `scientific’ foundations of linguistics are not entirely neutral in their preferences and implicit value judgements. Some writings on translation based on this approach are obsessed with the translation process and coming up with some model for description of the process. As Theo Hermans (1985:9-10) correctly observes that in spite of some impressive semiotic terminology, complex schemes and diagrams illustrating the mental process of decoding messages in one medium and encoding them in another, they could hardly describe the actual conversion that takes place within the human mind, `that blackest of black boxes’. Lefevere notes, the descriptive approach was not very useful when it came to decide what good translation is and what is bad. Most of recent developments in translation theory look for alternatives to these essentializing approaches. Instead of considering literature as an autonomous and independent domain, it sees it in much broader social and cultural framework. It sees literature as a social institution and related to other social institutions. It examines the complex interconnections between poetics, politics, metaphysics, and history. It borrows its analytical tools from various social sciences like linguistics, semiotics, anthropology, history, economics, and psychoanalysis. It is closely allied to the discipline of cultural studies, as discussed by Jenks (1993:187) in using culture as a descriptive rather than normative category as well as working within an expanded concept of culture, which rejects the `high’ versus low stratification. It is keenly interested in the historical and political dimension of literature. Paradigm shift’ to use Theo Hermans’ phrase or the `Cultural turn’ in the discipline of translation theory has made a significant impact in the way we look at translation. Translation is as a form of intercultural communication raising the problems that are not merely at the verbal level or at the linguistic level. As Talgeri and Verma (1988:3) rightly point out, a word is,’ essentially a cultural memory in which the historical experience of the society is embedded. H. C. Trivedi (1971: 3) observes that while translating from an Indian language into English one is faced with two main problems: first one has to deal with concepts which require an understanding of Indian culture and secondly, one has to arrive at TL meaning equivalents of references to certain objects in SL, which includes features absent from TL culture. The awareness that one does not look for merely verbal equivalents but also for cultural equivalents, if there are any, goes a long way in helping the translator to decide the strategies he or she has to use. Translation then is no longer a problem of merely finding verbal equivalents but also of interpreting a text encoded in one semiotic system with the help of another. The notion of `intertextuality’ as formulated by the semiotician Julia Kristeva is extremely significant in this regard. She points out that any signifying system or practice already consists of other modes of cultural signification (1988:59-60). A literary text would implicate not only other verbal texts but also other modes of signification like food, fashion, local medicinal systems, metaphysical systems, traditional and conventional narratives like myths, literary texts, legends as well as literary conventions like genres, literary devices, and other symbolic structures. It would be almost tautological to state that the elements of the text, which are specific to the culture and the language, would be untranslatable. The whole enterprise of finding cultural equivalents raises awareness of the difference and similarities between the cultures . It also brings into focus the important question of cultural identity. Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira (1999:42) remarks that it is ultimately impossible to translate one cultural identity into another. So the act of translation is intimately related to the question of cultural identity, difference and similarity. A rather interesting approach to literary translation comes from Michel Riffaterre (1992: 204-217). He separates literary and non-literary use of language by saying that literature is different because i) it semioticicizes the discursive features e.g. lexical selection is made morphophonemically as well as semantically, ii) it substitutes semiosis for mimesis which gives literary language its indirection, and iii) it has â€Å"the` textuality’ that integrates semantic components of the verbal sequence (the ones open to linear decoding)-a theoretically open-ended sequence-into one closed, finite semiotic, system† that is , the parts of a literary texts are vitally linked to the whole of the text and the text is more or less self contained. Hence the literary translation should â€Å"reflect or imitate these differences†. He considers a literary text as an artefact and it contains the signals, which mark it as an artifact. Translation should also imitate or reflect these markers. He goes on to say that as we perceive a certain text as literary based on certain presuppositions we should render these literariness inducing presuppositions. Though this seems rather like traditional and formalist approach, what should be noted here is that Riffaterre is perceiving literariness in a rather different way while considering the problems of literary translation: `literariness’ is in no way the `essence’ of a text and a literary text is, for Riffatere one that which contains the signs which makes it obvious that it is a cultural artefact. Although he conceives of literary text as self-contained system, Riffatere too, like many other contemporary approaches sees it as a sub-system of cultural semiotic system. However, if one is to consider Riffatere’s notion of `text’ in contrast to Kristeva’s notion of intertextuality one feels that Riffaterre is probably simplifying the problem of cultural barriers to translatability. The assumption that literary text is a cultural artefact and is related to the other social systems is widespread these days. Some of the most important theorization based on this assumption has come from provocative and insightful perspectives of theorists like Andre Lefevere, Gideon Toury, Itamar Evan -Zohar, and Theo Hermans. These theorists are indebted to the concept of `literature as system’ as propounded by Russian Formalists like Tynianov, Jakobson, and Czech Structuralists like Mukarovsky and Vodicka, the French Structuralists thinkers, and the Marxist thinkers who considered literature as a section of the `superstructure’. The central idea of this point of view is that the study of literary translation should begin with a study of the translated text rather than with the process of translation, its role, function and reception in the culture in which it is translated as well as the role of culture in influencing the `process of decision making that is translation. ‘ It is fundamentally descriptive in its orientation (Toury 1985). Lefevere maintains, `Literature is one of the systems which constitute the system of discourses (which also contain disciplines like physics or law. ) usually referred to as a civilization, or a society (1988:16). ‘ Literature for Lefevere is a subsystem of society and it interacts with other systems. He observes that there is a `control factor in the literary system which sees to it that this particular system does not fall too far out of step with other systems that make up a society ‘ (p.17). He astutely observes that this control function works from outside of this system as well as from inside. The control function within the system is that of dominant poetics, `which can be said to consist of two components: one is an inventory of literary devices, genres, motifs, prototypical characters and situations, symbols; the other a concept of what the role of literature is, or should be, in the society at large. ‘ (p. 23). The educational establishment dispenses it. The second controlling factor is that of `patronage’. It can be exerted by `persons, not necessarily the Medici, Maecenas or Louis XIV only, groups or persons, such as a religious grouping or a political party, a royal court, publishers, whether they have a virtual monopoly on the book trade or not and, last but not least, the media. ‘ The patronage consists of three elements; the ideological component, the financial or economic component, and the element of status (p. 18-19). The system of literature, observes Lefevere, is not deterministic but it acts as a series of `constraints’ on the reader, writer, or rewriter. The control mechanism within the literary system is represented by critics, reviewers, teachers of literature, translators and other rewriters who will adapt works of literature until they can be claimed to correspond to the poetics and the ideology of their time. It is important to note that the political and social aspect of literature is emphasised in the system approach. The cultural politics and economics of patronage and publicity are seen as inseparable from literature. `Rewriting’ is the key word here which is used by Lefevere as a `convenient `umbrella-term’ to refer to most of the activities traditionally connected with literary studies: criticism, as well as translation, anthologization, the writing of literary history and the editing of texts-in fact, all those aspects of literary studies which establish and validate the value-structures of canons. Rewritings, in the widest sense of the term, adapt works of literature to a given audience and/or influence the ways in which readers read a work of literature. ‘ (60-61). The texts, which are rewritten, processed for a certain audience, or adapted to a certain poetics, are the `refracted’ texts and these maintains Lefevere are responsible for the canonized status of the text (p179). `Interpretation (criticism), then and translation are probably the most important forms of refracted literature, in that they are the most influential ones’ he notes (1984:90) and says, ` One never translates, as the models of the translation process based on the Buhler/Jakobson communication model, featuring disembodied senders and receivers, carefully isolated from all outside interference by that most effective expedient, the dotted line, would have us believe, under a sort of purely linguistic bell jar. Ideological and poetological motivations are always present in the production, or the non production of translations of literary works†¦ Translation and other refractions, then, play a vital part in the evolution of literatures, not only by introducing new texts, authors and devices, but also by introducing them in a certain way, as part of a wider design to try to influence that evolution’ (97) . Translation becomes one of the parts of the `refraction’ â€Å"†¦ the rather long term strategy, of which translation is only a part, and which has as its aim the manipulation of  foreign work in the service of certain aims that are felt worthy of pursuit in the native culture†¦ † (1988:204). This is indeed a powerful theory to study translation as it places as much significance to it as criticism and interpretation. Lefevere goes on to give some impressive analytical tools and perspectives for studying literary translation, `The ideological and poetological constraints under which translations are produced should be explicated, and the strategy devised by the translator to deal with those constraints should be described: does he or she make a translation in a more descriptive or in a more refractive way? What are the intentions with which he or she introduces foreign elements into the native system? Equivalence, fidelity, freedom and the like will then be seen more as functions of a strategy adopted under certain constraints, rather than absolute requirements, or norms that should or should not be imposed or respected. It will be seen that `great ‘ages of translation occur whenever a given literature recognizes another as more prestigious and tries to emulate it. Literatures will be seen to have less need of translation(s) when they are convinced of their own superiority. It will also be seen that translations are often used (think of the Imagists) by adherents of an alternative poetics to challenge the dominant poetics of a certain period in a certain system, especially when that alternative poetics cannot use the work of its own adherents to do so, because that work is not yet written’ (1984:98-99). Another major theorist working on similar lines as that of Lefevere is Gideon Toury (1985). His approach is what he calls Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS). He emphasizes the fact that translations are facts of one system only: the target system and it is the target or recipient culture or a certain section of it, which serves as the initiator of the decision to translate and consequently translators operate first and foremost in the interest of the culture into which they are translating. Toury very systematically charts out a step by step guide to the study of translation. He stresses that the study should begin with the empirically observed data, that is, the translated texts and proceeds from there towards the reconstruction of non-observational facts rather than the other way round as is usually done in the `corpus’ based and traditional approaches to translation. The most interesting thing about Toury’s approach (1984) is  that it takes into consideration things like `pseudo-translation’ or the texts foisted off as translated but in fact are not so. In the very beginning when the problem of distinguishing a translated text from a non-translated text arises, Toury assumes that for his procedure `translation’ will be taken to be `any target-language utterance which is presented or regarded as such within the target culture, on whatever grounds’. In this approach pseudotranslations are `just as legitimate objects for study within DTS as genuine translations. They may prove to be highly instructive for the establishment of the general notion of translation as shared by the members of a certain target language community’. Then the next step in Toury’s DTS would be to study their acceptability in their respective target language system followed by mapping these texts, `Via their constitutive elements as TRANSLATIONAL PHENOMENA, on their counterparts in the appropriate source system and text, identified as such in the course of a comparative analysis, as SOLUTIONS to TRANSLATIONAL PROBLEMS’. Then a scholar should proceed to `identify and describe the (one-directional, irreversible) RELATIONSHIPS obtaining between the members of each pair; and finally to go on to refer these relationships- by means of the mediating functional-relational notion of TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE, established as pertinent to the corpus under study-to the overall CONCEPT OF TRANSLATION underlying the corpus. It is these last two concepts which form the ultimate goal of systematic studies within DTS†¦ only when the nature of the prevailing concept of translation has been established will it become possible to reconstruct the possible process of CONSIDERATION and DECISION-MAKING which was involved in the act of translating in question as well as the set of CONSTRAINTS which were actually accepted by the translator. ‘ (1985:21) Toury’s step by step procedure is descriptive, empirical and inductive, beginning with the observed facts and then moving towards uncovering the strategies and techniques used by translator and the implicit notion and presupposition of equivalence rather than treating the notion of equivalence as given. The concept of constraint puts him in the company of Lefevere. The essential question is not of defining what is equivalence in general, whether it is possible or not, or of how to find equivalents, but of discovering what is meant by equivalence by the community or group within the target culture. These approaches are also extremely useful in the area of comparative literary studies and comparativists like Durisin (1984:184-142) whose approach is in many ways similar to Lefevere and Toury in focusing on function and relation of literary translation in the target or the recipient culture. He is of opinion that it is impossible to speak of theories of translation without applying the comparative procedure, as the aim of analysis of a translation is to determine the extent to which it belongs to the developmental series of the native literature. He like the other two theorists discussed, considers the translation procedure as well as the selection of the text being ` primarily determined by the integral need of the recipient literature, by its capacity for absorbing the literary phenomenon of a different national literature, work, etc.  and for reacting in a specific manner (integrational or differtiational) in its aesthetic features’ as well as the norm of time. This type of theorization is far from the traditional paradigm of translation theory that is obsessed with the ideas of fidelity and betrayal, and the notions of `free’ vs. literal translation. Thanks to the proponents of system approach to literary translation, translation studies can boast of becoming a discipline in its own right due to the development of powerful theoretical models. However, the problem with Leferverian system is its terminology. The words `refracted’ and `rewriting’ presuppose that a text can be written for the first time and that it exists in a pre-non-refracted state. These presuppositions take him dangerously close to the very `corpus’ based approach he is so vigorously attacking. Perhaps Derridian philosophy can explain why one is always in danger of belonging to the very system of thought one is criticizing. Another obvious limitation of these types of theories is that they are rather reductionist in their approach. Though Lefevere maintains that the system concept holds that the refracted texts are mainly responsible for the canonized status of the corpus and the intrinsic quality alone could not have given canonized status for them he fails to point out the exact features and qualities of the literary text which solicit refractions. Then there are problematic words like` the system’ which Lefevere points out `refer to a heuristic construct that does not emphatically possess any kind of ontological reality†¦.’ and `is merely used to designate a model that promises to help make sense of a very complex phenomenon, that of writing, reading and rewriting of literature†¦ (1985: 225). Besides types of theories are descriptive and hence have a limited use for the translator as well as translation criticism, which is a rather neglected branch of translation studies till date. Lefevere says that translation criticism hardly rises much above, `he is wrong because I’m right level†¦ ‘(1984:99). He also points out that it is impossible to define once and for all, what a good translation is just as it is impossible to define once and for all what good literature is. And † critic A, â€Å"judging† on the basis of poetics A’ will rule translation A â€Å"good† because it happens to be constructed on the basis of the principles laid down in A’. Critic B, on the other hand, operating on the basis of poetics B’, will damn translation A† and praise translation B’, for obvious reasons†¦ â€Å"(1988:176). He believes,† Translators can be taught languages and a certain awareness of how literature works. The rest is up to them. They make mistakes only on the linguistic level. The rest is strategy. † (1984:99). The perspective of course is that of a value relativist and a culture relativist, which seem to be the politically correct and `in’ stances today, but the stance can be seen as symptomatic in the light of deeper moral crises in the larger philosophical context. An ambitious and insightful essay by Raymond van den Broeck, `Second Thought on Translation Criticism: A Model of its Analytic Function’ (1985) attempts to go beyond the mere descriptive and uncourageous approach of Lefevere and Toury which tries to incorporate the ideas of their theories. Like Toury and Lefevere, Broeck stresses the importance of examination of the norms among all those involved in the production and reception of translations and remarks that it is the foremost task of translation criticism to create greater awareness of these norms but he also gives room for the critic’s personal value judgements. The critic may or may not agree with the particular method chosen by the translator for a particular purpose. He is entitled to doubt the effectiveness of the chosen strategies, to criticize decisions taken with regard to certain details. To the extent that he is himself familiar with the functional features of the source text, he will be a trustworthy guide in telling the reader where target textemes balance source textemes and where in the critic’s view, they do not. But he must never confuse his own initial norms with those of the translator (p. 60-61). Broeck attempts a synthesis of the target culture oriented inductive – descriptive approach and the notorious task of evaluating translation and the result is indeed very useful and commendable as translation evaluation is a neglected branch of translation studies. As opposed to this descriptive approach is Venuti’s The Translator’s Invisibility (1995). With a normative and extremely insightful point of view he examines historically how the norm of fluency prevailed over other translation strategies to shape the canon of foreign literatures in English. He makes a strong case for `foreignness’ and `awkwardness’ of the translated text as a positive value in the evaluation of translation. The other approaches to the study of translation which seem to be gaining ground lay greater emphasis on the political dimension of literary translation. The more recent literary theories like New Historicism are interested in reading the contexts of power relations in a literary text. In his critical exposition of New Historicism and Cultural materialism, John Brannigan (1998) states, `New Historicism is a mode of critical interpretation which privileges power relations as the most important context for texts of all kinds. As a critical practice it treats literary texts as a space where power relations are made visible ‘(6). Such a perspective when applied to the texts that communicate across cultures can yield very important insights and open an exciting way of thinking about translation. Tejaswini Niranjana’s book Siting Translation, History, Post-Structuralism, and the Colonial Context (1995) examines translation theories from this perspective. â€Å"In a post-colonial context the problematic of translation becomes a significant site for raising questions of representation, power, and historicity. The context is one of contesting and contested stories attempting to account for, to recount, the asymmetry and inequality of relations between peoples, races, languages. † In translation, the relationship between the two languages is hardly on equal terms. Niranjana draws attention to a rather overlooked fact that translation is between languages, which are hierarchically related, and that it is a mode of representation in another culture. When the relationship between the cultures and languages is that of colonizer and colonized, â€Å"translation†¦ produces strategies of containment. By employing certain modes of representing the other-which it thereby also brings into being–translation reinforces hegemonic versions of the colonized, helping them acquire the status of what Edward Said calls representations or objects without history ‘(p.3). She points out in the introduction that her concern is to probe `the absence, lack, or repression of an awareness of asymmetry and historicity in several kinds of writing on translation’ (p. 9). Harish Trivedi (1997) has demonstrated how translation of Anatole France’s Thais by Premchand was distinctly a political act in the sense that it selected a text which was not part of the literature of the colonial power and that it attempted a sort of liberation of Indian literature from the tutelage of the imperially-inducted master literature, English. St-Pierre observes the fact that translators when faced with references to specific aspects of the source culture may use a variety of tactics, including non-translation, as part of their overall strategy and use many other complex tactics in order to reinvent their relations in a postcolonial context (1997:423). Mahasweta Sengupta has offered a rather engaging and perceptive reading of Rabindranath Tagore’s autotranslation of Gitanjali. She points out giving numerous examples, of how Rabindranath took immense liberties with his own Bengali originals in order to refashion his Bengali songs to suit the English sensibility. He modified, omitted, and rewrote his poems in the manner of the Orientalists to cater to his Western audience (1996). Bassnett and Trivedi (1999) believe that the hierarchic opposition between the original work and translation reflects the hierarchic opposition between the European colonizer culture and the colonized culture. This hierarchy, they observe, is Eurocentric, and its spread is associated with the history of colonialization, imperialism and proselytization. Because of these historical reasons, radical theories of translation have come up in the former colonies. Recalling how members of a sixteenth century Brazilian tribe called Tupinamba ate a Catholic priest, an act which could have even been an act of homage, Bassnett and Trivedi suggest that the metaphor of `cannibalism’ could be used for the act of translation as it is one of the ways former colonies might find a way to assert themselves and their own culture and to reject the feeling of being derivative and appellative `copy’, without at the same time rejecting everything that might be of value that comes from Europe. Else Ribeiro Pires Viera has considered the translation theory of Haroldo de Campos, a renowned Brazilian translator who uses very interesting metaphors for translating like, perceiving translation as blood transfusion and vampirization which actually nourishes the translator and thus subverting the hierarchic polarities of the privileged original and inauthentic translation in a post colonial context. This type of approach to translation promotes the awareness of political and historical field in which translation operates among the readers as well as the translators. Another significant statement on `The Politics of Translation’ comes from Gayatri Chakaravorty Spivak (1998:95-118) who conceives of translation as an important strategy in pursuing the larger feminist agenda of achieving women’s `solidarity’. ` The task of the feminist translator is to consider language as a clue to the working of gendered agency. ‘ Translation can give access to a larger number of feminists working in various languages and cultures. She advises that a translator must `surrender’ to the text, as translation is the most intimate act of reading. It is an act of submission to the rhetorical dimension of the text. This act for Spivak is more of an erotic act than ethical. She also advises that one’s first obligation in understanding solidarity is to learn other women’s mother tongue rather than consider solidarity as an `a priori’ given.